The /proc filesystem was originally developed to provide information on the processes in a system. But given the filesystem's usefulness, many elements of the kernel use it both to report information and to enable dynamic runtime configuration.
The /proc filesystem contains directories (as a way of organizing information) and virtual files. A virtual file can present information from the kernel to the user and also serve as a means of sending information from the user to the kernel. It's not actually required to do both, but this article show you how to configure the filesystem for input and output.
A short article like this can't detail all the uses of /proc, but it
does demonstrate a couple of uses to give you an idea of how powerful /proc can
be. Listing 1 is an interactive tour of some of the /proc elements. It shows the
root level of the /proc filesystem. Note the series of numbered files on the left.
Each of these is a directory representing a process in the system. Because the
first process created in GNU/Linux is the init process,
it has a process-id of 1. Next, performing an
ls on the directory shows a list of files. Each file
provides details on the particular process. For example, to see the command-line
entry for init, simply cat
the cmdline file.
Some of the other interesting files in /proc are
cpuinfo, which identifies the type of processor and its
speed; pci, which shows the devices found on the PCI
buses; and modules, which identifies the modules that
are currently loaded into the kernel.
Listing 1. Interactive tour of /proc
[root@plato]# ls /proc 1 2040 2347 2874 474 fb mdstat sys 104 2061 2356 2930 9 filesystems meminfo sysrq-trigger 113 2073 2375 2933 acpi fs misc sysvipc 1375 21 2409 2934 buddyinfo ide modules tty 1395 2189 2445 2935 bus interrupts mounts uptime 1706 2201 2514 2938 cmdline iomem mtrr version 179 2211 2515 2947 cpuinfo ioports net vmstat 180 2223 2607 3 crypto irq partitions 181 2278 2608 3004 devices kallsyms pci 182 2291 2609 3008 diskstats kcore self 2 2301 263 3056 dma kmsg slabinfo 2015 2311 2805 394 driver loadavg stat 2019 2337 2821 4 execdomains locks swaps [root@plato 1]# ls /proc/1 auxv cwd exe loginuid mem oom_adj root statm task cmdline environ fd maps mounts oom_score stat status wchan [root@plato]# cat /proc/1/cmdline init [5] [root@plato]# |
Listing 2 illustrates reading from and then writing to a virtual file in /proc. This example checks and then enables IP forwarding within the kernel's TCP/IP stack.
Listing 2. Reading from and writing to /proc (configuring the kernel)
[root@plato]# cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward 0 [root@plato]# echo "1" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward [root@plato]# cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward 1 [root@plato]# |
Alternatively, you could use sysctl to configure these
kernel items. See the Resources section for more
information on that.
By the way, the /proc filesystem isn't the only virtual filesystem in GNU/Linux. One such system, sysfs, is similar to /proc but a bit more organized (having learned lessons from /proc). However, /proc is entrenched and therefore, even though sysfs has some advantages over it, /proc is here to stay. There's also the debugfs filesystem, but it tends to be (as the name implies) more of a debugging interface. An advantage to debugfs is that it's extremely simple to export a single value to user space (in fact, it's a single call).
Loadable Kernel Modules (LKM) are an easy way to demonstrate the /proc filesystem, because they're a novel way to dynamically add or remove code from the Linux kernel. LKMs are also a popular mechanism for device drivers and filesystems in the Linux kernel.
If you've ever recompiled the Linux kernel, you probably found that in the kernel configuration process, many device drivers and other kernel elements are compiled as modules. If a driver is compiled directly into the kernel, its code and static data occupy space even if they're not used. But if the driver is compiled as a module, it requires memory only if memory is needed and subsequently loaded, into the kernel. Interestingly, you won't notice a performance hit for LKMs, so they're a powerful means of creating a lean kernel that adapts to its environment based upon the available hardware and attached devices.
Here's a simple LKM to help you understand how it differs from standard (non-dynamically loadable) code that you'll find in the Linux kernel. Listing 3 presents the simplest LKM. (You can download the sample code for this article from the Downloads section, below.)
Listing 3 includes the necessary module header (which defines the module APIs,
types, and macros). It then defines the license for the module using
MODULE_LICENSE. Here, it specifies GPL to avoid
tainting the kernel.
Listing 3 then defines the module init and
cleanup functions. The
my_module_init function is called when the module is
loaded and the function can be used for initialization purposes. The
my_module_cleanup function is called when the module is
being unloaded and is used to free memory and generally remove traces of the
module. Note the use of printk here: this is the kernel
printf function. The
KERN_INFO symbol is a string that you can use to filter
information from entering the kernel ring buffer (much like
syslog).
Finally, Listing 3 declares the entry and exit functions using the
module_init and module_exit
macros. This allows you to name the module init and
cleanup functions the way you want but then tell the
kernel which functions are the maintenance functions.
Listing 3. A simple but functional LKM (simple-lkm.c)
#include <linux/module.h>
/* Defines the license for this LKM */
MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
/* Init function called on module entry */
int my_module_init( void )
{
printk(KERN_INFO "my_module_init called. Module is now loaded.\n");
return 0;
}
/* Cleanup function called on module exit */
void my_module_cleanup( void )
{
printk(KERN_INFO "my_module_cleanup called. Module is now unloaded.\n");
return;
}
/* Declare entry and exit functions */
module_init( my_module_init );
module_exit( my_module_cleanup );
|
Listing 3 is a real LKM, albeit a simple one. Now, let's build it and
test it out on a 2.6 kernel. The 2.6 kernel introduces a new method for kernel
module building that I find simpler than the older methods. With the file
simple-lkm.c, create a makefile whose sole content is:
obj-m += simple-lkm.o |
To build the LKM, use the make command as shown in
Listing 4.
Listing 4. Building an LKM
[root@plato]# make -C /usr/src/linux-`uname -r` SUBDIRS=$PWD modules make: Entering directory `/usr/src/linux-2.6.11' CC [M] /root/projects/misc/module2.6/simple/simple-lkm.o Building modules, stage 2. MODPOST CC /root/projects/misc/module2.6/simple/simple-lkm.mod.o LD [M] /root/projects/misc/module2.6/simple/simple-lkm.ko make: Leaving directory `/usr/src/linux-2.6.11' [root@plato]# |
The result is simple-lkm.ko. The new naming convention
helps to distinguish kernel objects (LKMs) from standard objects. You can now load
and unload the module and then view its output. To load the module, use the
insmod command; conversely, to unload the module, use
the rmmod command. lsmod
shows the currently loaded LKMs (see Listing 5).
Listing 5. Inserting, checking, and removing an LKM
[root@plato]# insmod simple-lkm.ko [root@plato]# lsmod Module Size Used by simple_lkm 1536 0 autofs4 26244 0 video 13956 0 button 5264 0 battery 7684 0 ac 3716 0 yenta_socket 18952 3 rsrc_nonstatic 9472 1 yenta_socket uhci_hcd 32144 0 i2c_piix4 7824 0 dm_mod 56468 3 [root@plato]# rmmod simple-lkm [root@plato]# |
Note that kernel output goes to the kernel ring buffer and not to
stdout, because stdout is
process specific. To inspect messages on the kernel ring buffer, you can use the
dmesg utility (or work through /proc itself with the
command cat /proc/kmsg). Listing 6 shows the output of
the last few messages from dmesg.
Listing 6. Reviewing the kernel output from the LKM
[root@plato]# dmesg | tail -5 cs: IO port probe 0xa00-0xaff: clean. eth0: Link is down eth0: Link is up, running at 100Mbit half-duplex my_module_init called. Module is now loaded. my_module_cleanup called. Module is now unloaded. [root@plato]# |
You can see the module's messages in the kernel output. Now let's move beyond this simple example and look at some of the kernel APIs that allow you to develop useful LKMs.
Integrating into the /proc filesystem
The standard APIs that are available to kernel programmers are also available to LKM programmers. It's even possible for an LKM to export new variables and functions that the kernel can use. A complete treatment of the APIs is beyond the scope of this article, so I simply present some of the elements that I use later to demonstrate a more useful LKM.
Creating and removing a /proc entry
To create a virtual file in the /proc filesystem, use the
create_proc_entry function. This function accepts a
file name, a set of permissions, and a location in the /proc filesystem in which
the file is to reside. The return value of
create_proc_entry is a
proc_dir_entry pointer (or NULL, indicating an
error in create). You can then use the return pointer
to configure other aspects of the virtual file, such as the function to call when
a read is performed on the file. The prototype for
create_proc_entry and a portion of the
proc_dir_entry structure are shown in Listing 7.
Listing 7. Elements for managing a /proc filesystem entry
struct proc_dir_entry *create_proc_entry( const char *name, mode_t mode,
struct proc_dir_entry *parent );
struct proc_dir_entry {
const char *name; // virtual file name
mode_t mode; // mode permissions
uid_t uid; // File's user id
gid_t gid; // File's group id
struct inode_operations *proc_iops; // Inode operations functions
struct file_operations *proc_fops; // File operations functions
struct proc_dir_entry *parent; // Parent directory
...
read_proc_t *read_proc; // /proc read function
write_proc_t *write_proc; // /proc write function
void *data; // Pointer to private data
atomic_t count; // use count
...
};
void remove_proc_entry( const char *name, struct proc_dir_entry *parent );
|
Later you see how to use the read_proc and
write_proc commands to plug in functions for reading
and writing the virtual file.
To remove a file from /proc, use the remove_proc_entry
function. To use this function, provide the file name string as well as the
location of the file in the /proc filesystem (its parent). The function prototype
is also shown in Listing 7.
The parent argument can be NULL for the /proc root or a number of other values,
depending upon where you want the file to be placed. Table 1 lists some of the
other parent proc_dir_entrys that you can use, along
with their location in the filesystem.
Table 1. Shortcut proc_dir_entry variables
| proc_dir_entry | Filesystem location |
|---|---|
proc_root_fs | /proc |
proc_net | /proc/net |
proc_bus | /proc/bus |
proc_root_driver | /proc/driver |
You can write to a /proc entry (from the user to the kernel) by using a
write_proc function. This function has this prototype:
int mod_write( struct file *filp, const char __user *buff,
unsigned long len, void *data );
|
The filp argument is essentially an open file
structure (we'll ignore this). The buff
argument is the string data being passed to you. The buffer address is actually a
user-space buffer, so you won't be able to read it directly. The
len argument defines how much data in
buff is being written. The
data argument is a pointer to the private data (see Listing 7). In the module, I declare a function of this
type to deal with the incoming data.
Linux provides a set of APIs to move data between user space and kernel space.
For the write_proc case, I use the
copy_from_user functions to manipulate the user-space
data.
You can read data from a /proc entry (from the kernel to the user) by using the
read_proc function. This function has the following
prototype:
int mod_read( char *page, char **start, off_t off,
int count, int *eof, void *data );
|
The page argument is the location into which you write
the data intended for the user, where count defines the
maximum number of characters that can be written. Use the
start and off arguments when
returning more than a page of data (typically 4KB). When all the data have been
written, set the eof (end-of-file) argument. As with
write, data represents
private data. The page buffer provided here is in
kernel space. Therefore, you can write to it without having to invoke
copy_to_user.
You can also create directories within the /proc filesystem using
proc_mkdir as well as
symlinks with proc_symlink.
For simple /proc entries that require only a read
function, use create_proc_read_entry, which creates the
/proc entry and initializes the read_proc function in
one call. The prototypes for these functions are shown in Listing 8.
Listing 8. Other useful /proc functions
/* Create a directory in the proc filesystem */
struct proc_dir_entry *proc_mkdir( const char *name,
struct proc_dir_entry *parent );
/* Create a symlink in the proc filesystem */
struct proc_dir_entry *proc_symlink( const char *name,
struct proc_dir_entry *parent,
const char *dest );
/* Create a proc_dir_entry with a read_proc_t in one call */
struct proc_dir_entry *create_proc_read_entry( const char *name,
mode_t mode,
struct proc_dir_entry *base,
read_proc_t *read_proc,
void *data );
/* Copy buffer to user-space from kernel-space */
unsigned long copy_to_user( void __user *to,
const void *from,
unsigned long n );
/* Copy buffer to kernel-space from user-space */
unsigned long copy_from_user( void *to,
const void __user *from,
unsigned long n );
/* Allocate a 'virtually' contiguous block of memory */
void *vmalloc( unsigned long size );
/* Free a vmalloc'd block of memory */
void vfree( void *addr );
/* Export a symbol to the kernel (make it visible to the kernel) */
EXPORT_SYMBOL( symbol );
/* Export all symbols in a file to the kernel (declare before module.h) */
EXPORT_SYMTAB |
Fortune cookies through the /proc filesystem
Here's an LKM that supports both reading and writing. This simple
application provides a fortune cookie dispenser. After the module is loaded, the
user can load text fortunes into it using the echo
command and then read them back out individually using the
cat command.
Listing 9 presents the basic module functions and variables. The
init function
(init_fortune_module) allocates space for the cookie
pot with vmalloc and then clears it out with
memset. With the cookie_pot
allocated and empty, I create my proc_dir_entry next in
the /proc root called fortune. With proc_entry
successfully created, I initialize my local variables and the
proc_entry structure. I load my /proc
read and write functions
(shown in Listings 9 and 10) and identify the owner of the module. The
cleanup function simply removes the entry from the
/proc filesystem and then frees the memory that
cookie_pot occupies.
The cookie_pot is a page in length (4KB) and is
managed by two indexes. The first, cookie_index,
identifies where the next cookie will be written. The variable
next_fortune identifies where the next cookie will be
read for output. I simply wrap next_fortune to the
beginning when all fortunes have been read.
Listing 9. Module init/cleanup and variables
#include <linux/module.h>
#include <linux/kernel.h>
#include <linux/proc_fs.h>
#include <linux/string.h>
#include <linux/vmalloc.h>
#include <asm/uaccess.h>
MODULE_LICENSE("GPL");
MODULE_DESCRIPTION("Fortune Cookie Kernel Module");
MODULE_AUTHOR("M. Tim Jones");
#define MAX_COOKIE_LENGTH PAGE_SIZE
static struct proc_dir_entry *proc_entry;
static char *cookie_pot; // Space for fortune strings
static int cookie_index; // Index to write next fortune
static int next_fortune; // Index to read next fortune
int init_fortune_module( void )
{
int ret = 0;
cookie_pot = (char *)vmalloc( MAX_COOKIE_LENGTH );
if (!cookie_pot) {
ret = -ENOMEM;
} else {
memset( cookie_pot, 0, MAX_COOKIE_LENGTH );
proc_entry = create_proc_entry( "fortune", 0644, NULL );
if (proc_entry == NULL) {
ret = -ENOMEM;
vfree(cookie_pot);
printk(KERN_INFO "fortune: Couldn't create proc entry\n");
} else {
cookie_index = 0;
next_fortune = 0;
proc_entry->read_proc = fortune_read;
proc_entry->write_proc = fortune_write;
proc_entry->owner = THIS_MODULE;
printk(KERN_INFO "fortune: Module loaded.\n");
}
}
return ret;
}
void cleanup_fortune_module( void )
{
remove_proc_entry("fortune", &proc_root);
vfree(cookie_pot);
printk(KERN_INFO "fortune: Module unloaded.\n");
}
module_init( init_fortune_module );
module_exit( cleanup_fortune_module );
|
Writing a new cookie to the pot is a simple process (shown in Listing 10). With
the length of the cookie being written, I check to see that space is available for
it. If not, I return -ENOSPC, which is communicated to
the user process. Otherwise, the space exists, and I use
copy_from_user to copy the user buffer directly into
the cookie_pot. I then increment the
cookie_index (based upon the length of the user buffer)
and NULL terminate the string. Finally, I return the number of characters actually
written into the cookie_pot that is propagated to the
user process.
Listing 10. Function to write a fortune
ssize_t fortune_write( struct file *filp, const char __user *buff,
unsigned long len, void *data )
{
int space_available = (MAX_COOKIE_LENGTH-cookie_index)+1;
if (len > space_available) {
printk(KERN_INFO "fortune: cookie pot is full!\n");
return -ENOSPC;
}
if (copy_from_user( &cookie_pot[cookie_index], buff, len )) {
return -EFAULT;
}
cookie_index += len;
cookie_pot[cookie_index-1] = 0;
return len;
}
|
Reading a fortune is just as simple, as shown in Listing 11. Because the buffer
that I'll write to (page) is already in kernel
space, I can manipulate it directly and use sprintf to
write the next fortune. If the next_fortune index is
greater than the cookie_index (next position to write),
I wrap next_fortune back to zero, which is the index of
the first fortune. After the fortune is written to the user buffer, I increment
the next_fortune index by the length of the last
fortune written. This places me at the index of the next available fortune. The
length of the fortune is returned and propagated to the user.
Listing 11. Function to read a fortune
int fortune_read( char *page, char **start, off_t off,
int count, int *eof, void *data )
{
int len;
if (off > 0) {
*eof = 1;
return 0;
}
/* Wrap-around */
if (next_fortune >= cookie_index) next_fortune = 0;
len = sprintf(page, "%s\n", &cookie_pot[next_fortune]);
next_fortune += len;
return len;
}
|
You can see from this simple example that communicating with the kernel through the /proc filesystem is a trivial effort. Now take a look at the fortune module in action (Listing 12).
Listing 12. Demonstrating the fortune cookie LKM
[root@plato]# insmod fortune.ko [root@plato]# echo "Success is an individual proposition. Thomas Watson" > /proc/fortune [root@plato]# echo "If a man does his best, what else is there? Gen. Patton" > /proc/fortune [root@plato]# echo "Cats: All your base are belong to us. Zero Wing" > /proc/fortune [root@plato]# cat /proc/fortune Success is an individual proposition. Thomas Watson [root@plato]# cat /proc/fortune If a man does his best, what else is there? Gen. Patton [root@plato]# |
The /proc virtual filesystem is widely used to report kernel information and also for dynamic configuration. You'll find it integral to both driver and module programming. You can learn more about it in the Resources below.
Learn
- "Administer
Linux on the fly" (developerWorks, May 2003) gives you a thorough
grounding in /proc, including how you can administer many details of the operating
system without ever having to shut down and reboot the machine.
- Explore the files
and subdirectories in the /proc filesystem.
- This article on driver porting to the 2.6 Linux kernel
discusses kernel modules in detail.
- LinuxHQ is a great site for
information on the Linux kernel.
- The debugfs filesystem is a debugging alternative to /proc.
- "Kernel
comparison: Improvements in kernel development from 2.4 to 2.6"
(developerWorks, February 2004) takes a look behind the scenes at the tools,
tests, and techniques that make up kernel 2.6.
- "Kernel
debugging with Kprobes" (developerWorks, August 2004) shows how in
combination with 2.6 kernels, Kprobes provides a lightweight, non-disruptive, and
powerful mechanism to insert the
printkfunction dynamically. - The
printkfunction anddmesgmethods are common means for kernel debugging. Allessando Rubini's book Linux Device Drivers provides an online chapter about kernel debugging techniques. - The sysctl
command is another option for dynamic kernel configuration.
- In the developerWorks Linux zone,
find more resources for Linux developers.
- Stay current with developerWorks technical events and Webcasts.
Get products and technologies
- kernel.org has the latest Linux kernel.
- The GNU make utility
documentation is at the gnu.org site.
- The Modutils package provides a number of utilities for kernel modules.
- With IBM trial software, available for download directly from developerWorks,
build your next development project on Linux.
Discuss
- Check out developerWorks blogs and get
involved in the developerWorks community.
M. Tim Jones is an embedded software engineer and the author of GNU/Linux Application Programming, AI Application Programming, and BSD Sockets Programming from a Multilanguage Perspective. His engineering background ranges from the development of kernels for geosynchronous spacecraft to embedded systems architecture and networking protocols development. Tim is a senior principal engineer at Emulex Corp.
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